Having concluded the 10th
Century in my last review, with Leo the Deacon and his history of the emperors
Nikephoros II Phokas and John I Tzimiskes, it now falls upon me to review the
action-packed primary sources of the 11th Century, beginning with
the chronicler John Skylitzes and his Synopsis Historion.
The 11th
Century was a time of great crisis and change for the Byzantine-Roman Empire,
and nowhere is this better displayed than in the historical narratives found
later in this century. The names of Michael Psellos, John Skylitzes, Michael
Attaleiates, Nikephoros Bryennios and Anna Komnene are almost half-famous
outside of Byzantine studies, and no wonder. Writing in the aftermath of an
unstoppable Turkish invasion, after the death of the ruling Macedonian family
and during the rise of a new imperial dynasty on the cusp of the Crusades, one
of Byzantium’s most traumatic chapters was about to begin. Of these various
historians who wrote within mere decades of each other, I opted to begin with
John Skylitzes for a couple of reasons. Though writing a bit later than Michael
Psellos, whose famous Chronographia
is a cracker by the way, Skyltizes’ chronicle begins much earlier than those of
his contemporaries and concludes much earlier. Skylitzes opens his work exactly
where Theophanes the Confessor left off, in the early 9th Century
with the short and inconclusive reign of Michael I Rhangabe (r.811-813), and
gives us a continuous narrative of the next two and a half centuries up to the
similarly short and inconclusive reign of Michael VI Bringas (r.1056-1057). The
period covered can pretty much be described as that of the so-called Macedonian
Dynasty (circa 866-1056), during which the Roman empire of Byzantium was ruled
by the descendents of Basil I the Macedonian*(barring frequent and almost
habitual interruptions from outsiders, of course), the empire achieving its
territorial zenith for the first time since Justinian I, and during which the
new Byzantine aristocracy rose to power.
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| The 'Monomachos Crown'. Isn't Byzantine stuff pretty? |
As a
historical source, Skylitzes’ Synopsis Historion has the problem of
being wholly unoriginal. He was a chronicler after all, a compiler of
information and assembler of other people’s historical work, and nowhere can
this better be seen than in the first main chunk of his narrative, from Michael
I down to Romanos II. For this period he copies his information directly from
an earlier chronicle which covers this exact period, that of Theophanes Continuatus, which I have
already reviewed. For the reigns of the emperors Michael I Rhangabe, Leo V the
Armenian, Michael II the Stammerer, Theophilos, Michael III the Drunkard, Basil
I the Macedonian, Leo VI the Wise, Alexander, Romanos I Lekapenos, Constantine
VII Porphyrogennetos and Romanos II, the reader will find little here that is
not also addressed – sometimes in greater detail – in this earlier chronicle. Skyltizes’
style of Greek is a little different, and he has certainly engaged with the
material in a different way by sometimes casting his characters and events in a different
light, but overall he tells us the same story.
Likewise
for the reigns of Nikephoros II Phokas (r.963-969) and John I Tzimiskes
(r.969-976) Skylitzes ends up retracing the steps of another historian, Leo the
Deacon, giving a more summarized account of these two emperors but nevertheless
telling us very little which we do not already know from this earlier source.
Things begin to get more interesting with the reign of Basil II ‘the Bulgar-Slayer’
onwards, at least if you want something more relevant to Skyltizes’ own day.
Let’s just quickly run down the main events of this period.
So, after
the usurper-emperors Nikephoros II and John I successfully expanded the borders
of the empire, the young Basil II Porphyrogennetos (r.976-1025) and his brother
finally assume power in their own right. Basil II immediately faced dreadful opposition to
his rule, at home from rebellious aristocratic warlords, and abroad in the
shape of a revived Bulgarian empire. Over the course of his long reign, Basil
II defeated and tamed his aristocratic enemies, of whom the Phokas and Skleros
families end up being the most notable in this narrative, and completed the
conquest of Bulgaria – earning him the nickname, later in history, of ‘the
Bulgar-Slayer’. After 49 years of solo-rule, one of the longest reigns the Roman empire had ever seen, Basil finally died. Being
childless, the empire
passed to Basil’s younger brother Constantine VIII
(r.1025-1028), who after a three-year reign also died, having achieved nothing
but scandal and a bad reputation. Constantine VIII’s two surviving children,
Zoe and Theodora, were by this point already well into middle age, and as the
last representatives of the Macedonian dynasty they were the sole claimants for
the throne. Before he died, Constantine VIII ensured that Zoe – who was still
unmarried – would now marry one of the courtiers and thereby raise him as the
next emperor. Though not exercising formal authority herself, at least for much
of the time, the empress Zoe was to be a central figure in imperial politics
from 1028 down to her death in 1050, raising four separate men to the throne
during this time. Her first husband, Romanos III Argyros (r.1028-1034), was of
little use as a ruler, and eventually died under mysterious circumstances after
an undistinguished reign. Zoe’s second husband, Michael IV the Paphlagonian
(r.1034-1041), was a similarly useless candidate for the throne – though it was
the fact that his brothers held a monopoly on power that made this ruler
interesting. As Skylitzes tells us, Michael was not really in control, but
rather it was his brother John the Orphanotrophos who ruled from behind the
throne. Eventually Michael was to die himself, leaving his nephew, Michael V ‘the
Caulker’ (r.1041-1042) to inherit the throne alongside his adoptive mother, the
empress Zoe. Michael V was not happy about sharing power, and his brief reign
came to an end when he foolishly tried to
depose Zoe. The populace of
Constantinople rose up against him, restoring Zoe to power alongside her sister
Theodora, and having the young emperor and his uncle blinded. After a brief solo
reign, Zoe married for a third time, this time to a certain Constantine IX
Monomachos (r.1042-1055). Constantine was to outlive the empress, amidst
scandals involving his mistress and many of his courtiers, as well as a
deteriorating situation on the eastern frontier and yet more violent internal
rebellions. By the time Constantine IX died, the empire was looking a little
shaky. The last surviving member of the Macedonian dynasty, Zoe’s aged sister
Theodora, smoothly assumed power, but it was clear to one and all that this
situation was temporary. Theodora was old and childless, meaning that the
Macedonian dynasty had reached its end at last. With the end of Byzantium’s
most makeshift imperial house, there was nothing to prevent the new Anatolian
aristocracy from squabbling for the throne. Theodora appointed as her successor
Michael VI Bringas/Stratiotikos, ‘the Aged’ (r.1056-1057), who immediately
faced an angry military elite hungry for wealth and power. Michael VI’s reign
was dominated by an armed insurrection from these eastern warlords, who flocked
to the banner of one Isaac Komnenos. Skylitzes concludes his narrative with
Michael VI’s deposition, and the ascension of Isaac I Komnenos.
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| The empire at the end of Basil II's reign. |
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| A scene from the Madrid manuscript of Skylitzes |
The
following is a list of the emperors of the late Macedonian dynasty, from Basil
II to Isaac Komnenos:
*Basil II Bulgaroktonos (976 – 1025) – Son of Romanos II,
great-great-grandson of Basil I
*Constantine VIII (1025 – 1028) – Brother of
Basil II. Died leaving two daughters
Romanos III Argyros (1028 – 1034) – Married Zoe,
daughter of Constantine VIII
Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034 – 1041) – Second
husband of the empress Zoe
Michael V Kalaphates (1041 – 1042) – Nephew of Michael
IV, adoptive son of Zoe
*Zoe and Theodora (1042) – Daughters of Constantine VIII
Constantine IX Monomachos (1042 – 1055) – Third husband of Zoe
*Theodora (1055 – 1056) – Daughter of
Constantine VIII, sister of Zoe
Michael VI Bringas (1056 – 1057) – Appointed
emperor on Theodora’s death
Isaac I Komnenos (1057 – 1059) – Seized the
throne from Michael VI
* Blood descendants of the Macedonian
dynasty
Skylitzes
presents us with a long and complex history of Byzantium, and at first it may
appear difficult to judge. In one way it could be seen as a continuation of Theophanes
Continuatus, bringing the narrative full circle to end of the Macedonian dynasty,
but I think it shows us something much more interesting than just that.
Throughout the text we can see the gradual emergence of a curious cultural
phenomenon, the formation of Byzantine aristocratic clans, who over the course
of several generations become steadily more powerful, until in the end they
become the main candidates for the throne. In the days of Basil I and Leo VI we
begin to see the appearance of names who will become a common feature of
Byzantine history thereafter, including Phokas, Argyros and Doukas. To begin with
they are mere warlords and professional soldiers, the same sorts of people who would have tried to seize power over the empire before, but as time goes on they become more
common and begin to appear in every facet of government. During the early years of
Constantine VII they seem poised to take the throne by force, but then they
follow Romanos I Lekapenos’ example and attach themselves to the reigning
dynasty, gaining power through intrusion and co-option. In many ways it was a
miracle the Macedonian dynasty survived as long as it did. Through recurring
usurpation from Lekapenos, Phokas and Tsimiskes, temporarily being subdued
through sheer force by Basil II, by the time of the empress Zoe the aristocracy
had become accustomed to marrying into the reigning dynasty rather than trying
to supplant it, with Romanos III being from the old and powerful Argyros clan,
and Constantine IX being a Monomachos. When the last Macedonian empress died in
1056, the Anatolian aristocracy was too well established to put up with a weak
civilian emperor like Michael VI. From this point on, an emperor would be the
representative of one powerful family or another.
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| Mosaic of Zoe and Constantine IX in Hagia Sophia |
So how
does it read, then? Skylitzes is a fairly no-nonsense chronicler of events by
reign, each chapter being devoted to one particular emperor. This is certainly
following in the tradition set up by Constantine VII and Genesios, more
interested as they are in emperors rather than events. The solid, impersonal
year-by-year chronicles of Theophanes the Confessor and his ilk are long gone
by now. As such, Skylitzes is dominated by the imperial court and capital, with
occasional detours to provincial matters and border conflicts. Occasionally he
gives us a look at foreign lands, but these are exceptions to the main
narrative, which focuses on emperors and their courts and families. He tries to
keep his history strictly factual, rarely indulging in irrelevant stories or digressing
on a single point. Rarely does he seem too propagandistic, like Theophanes
Continuatus does. In fact, one gets the impression that the writer of this
text is a little more negative about these previous emperors than his source,
especially in the case of the Macedonian emperors themselves. It could be that
whereas Theophanes Continuatus and Leo the Deacon are written to glorify
particular rulers, Skylitzes – writing a century later, can be a tad more honest than his source text, and can say what he or his patrons may feel
about the emperors of the Macedonian era.
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| One of the scenes found in the 'Madrid Skylitzes' |
The
stuff that can be said about John Skylitzes’ Synopsis would probably
take up another few pages. We could talk about the weird connection between
Skylitzes’s work and that of another chronicler, George Kedrenos, and ask ourselves
who was copying whom. We could talk about the Madrid manuscript of Skylitzes,
which is filled with hundreds of colourful and adorable little pictures
illustrating the text, portraying Byzantine life and civilisation in a
fascinatingly original way. We could even talk about Skylitzes Continuatus,
a continuation of the text – possibly written by John Skyltizes himself – which
brings the narrative down by a further twenty years to the reign of Nikephoros
III Botaneiates. Alas this text has not yet been translated into English, and
anyway it is often considered to be a mere copy of Michael Attaleiates in the
same way Skylitzes uses Theophanes Continuatus. In the end, there is
just far too much to say about it.
So
in conclusion, John Skylitzes’ Synopsis is a very interesting chronicle, albeit a little unoriginal. It blatantly reproduces information from other
sources, but its sheer scope and the near incidental additions it makes to the
other sources make it more than worth a read, especially when cross-examining particular
periods and events. If you have to read just one Byzantine source from these
centuries, then it would make sense to start with this one. As a supplement to
Theophanes the Confessor, Skylitzes is very useful in that regard. By all means look it up, even if you have only a passing interest in Byzantine history.
* Unless you believe Leo VI (r.886-912)
was actually the biological son of Michael III, in which case this dynasty is
actually a continuation of the previous Amorian dynasty (820-866), and
therefore Skyltizes’ framing of his narrative around this group of rulers is
even more apt.
Bibliozantium 13
Georgius Cedrenos et Ioannis Scylitzae. Compendium Historiarum. I. Bekker (ed).
[Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae], 8/9, (Bonn, 1838-1839). In two
volumes.
John Skylitzes. Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis
Historiarum. I. Thurn (ed). [Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae], 5,
(Berlin, 1973).
John Skyltizes. A Synopsis of Byzantine History – 811-1057. Trans. J. Wortley. [Cambridge University Press] (Cambridge,
2010).
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